Leveraging Regional Institutions in Diplomatic Efforts towards Solving Bilateral Trade Issues in Africa

ABSTRACT

This paper explores the crucial role of regional institutions in promoting diplomatic initiatives to address bilateral trade issues in Africa. The study examines how organizations like the African Union (AU), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the East African Community (EAC) can effectively mediate and resolve trade disputes among member states, recognizing the importance of intra-African trade for the continent’s economic development. This study employs a mixed-methods approach, including case studies, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis, to investigate effective interventions by these regional institutions in trade diplomacy from 2010 to 2023. The findings indicate that regional institutions have significantly contributed to facilitating communication, providing neutral negotiating forums, and enacting binding settlements to mitigate trade disputes. Key procedures identified include the establishment of specialized trade dispute resolution bodies, capacity-building initiatives for member states, and the harmonization of regional trade policies. Nevertheless, challenges such as limited enforcement capabilities, overlapping memberships, and financial constraints continue to undermine the effectiveness of these institutions. The study suggests that enhancing the authority and resources of regional institutions is essential to improving their role in trade diplomacy. It advocates for strengthened cooperation among regional entities, the creation of comprehensive trade dispute databases, and the adoption of technology-based solutions for the oversight and enforcement of trade agreements. These findings contribute to the existing study on regional integration in Africa and provide practical insights for policymakers and diplomats seeking to leverage regional institutions to address bilateral trade challenges.

1. INTRODUCTION

Commerce is essential to Africa’s economic development, serving as a crucial catalyst for growth, job creation, and poverty reduction across the continent. The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA, 2021) states that intra-African commerce could increase by 54.8% by 2022 with the implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). Ongoing bilateral economic challenges obstruct the realization of this potential, underscoring the need for proactive diplomatic efforts. Lisinge  (2020) argues that resolving bilateral trade disputes is vital for unlocking Africa’s trade potential and promoting sustainable economic growth.[1]

Bilateral trade issues in Africa present various challenges, such as tariff and non-tariff barriers, differing regulatory frameworks, and political disagreements that affect economic ties. These challenges are often exacerbated by historical grievances, competition for resources, and the uneven distribution of benefits from trade agreements.[2] The complexity of these issues necessitates a nuanced approach to commercial diplomacy that goes beyond traditional state-to-state interactions.

Within this realm of operations, regional institutions have demonstrated the ability to act as effective intermediaries and facilitators of trade diplomacy in Africa. Organizations like the African Union (AU), the East African Community (EAC), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) have unique advantages in addressing bilateral trade issues. Hapres (2022) claims that regional institutions provide a multilateral framework that aids in the contextualization and resolution of bilateral challenges, often achieving greater efficiency and legitimacy than purely bilateral negotiations.[3]

African regional institutions have evolved to play a multifaceted role in economic diplomacy, leveraging their collective bargaining power, shared historical contexts, and established conflict resolution mechanisms. The African Union, as the continent’s leading pan-African body, has been pivotal in shaping the overarching agenda for trade integration through initiatives like the AfCFTA. According to Gammadigbe (2021), the AU’s role in trade diplomacy includes not only policy formulation but also active mediation and the provision of technical assistance in trade discussions.[4]

ECOWAS, which comprises 15 West African nations, has led regional economic integration efforts. Its engagement in trade disputes has been particularly impactful, as evidenced by its mediation during the 2018 Nigeria-Ghana trade tensions. Minko (2024) states that ECOWAS’s dispute resolution mechanisms have created a crucial forum for dialogue and negotiation, preventing the escalation of trade conflicts into larger political crises.[5] Similarly, the EAC and SADC have made notable strides in promoting regional integration and resolving trade issues among their member states. SADC, for example, established its Trade Protocol in 2000, which has been fundamental in standardizing trade policies and addressing conflicts. George et al. (2016) note that SADC’s institutional framework for trade dispute resolution has become one of the most advanced on the continent, offering valuable lessons for other regional institutions to follow.[6]

These regional institutions provide numerous benefits in facilitating bilateral trade matters. They can offer a neutral platform for discussion, free from the immediate pressures of bilateral politics. They can also leverage their collective expertise and resources to provide technical assistance and capacity-building to member countries. The decisions made by these regional institutions often carry enhanced legitimacy and enforcement power due to the multilateral nature of their missions. However, the effectiveness of regional institutions in trade diplomacy faces several challenges. Conflicting memberships, differing national interests, and limited enforcement capabilities can sometimes hinder their ability to resolve complex trade disputes. Gammadigbe (2021) cautions that the proliferation of regional trade agreements in Africa has led to a ‘spaghetti bowl’ effect, which can complicate the resolution of bilateral trade issues.[7]

Despite these challenges, the capacity of regional institutions to advance trade diplomacy in Africa remains robust and vital to the continent’s socioeconomic development. By creating structured frameworks for communication, conflict resolution, and policy alignment, these organizations have significantly contributed to enhancing bilateral trade while promoting greater economic integration across the continent. As Africa moves toward deeper economic integration through initiatives like the AfCFTA, the importance of regional institutions in trade diplomacy is expected to grow in the coming years.

1.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

The function of regional institutions in facilitating trade and addressing bilateral trade disputes in Africa has garnered increasing academic attention, especially from 2010 to the present. This article analyses the endeavors, effects, accomplishments, and obstacles encountered by prominent regional institutions, including the African Union (AU), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the East African Community (EAC), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC), in promoting trade activities throughout the continent.

The African Union, under its lofty African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) program, has made considerable progress in advancing intra-African commerce. Initiated in 2018, the AfCFTA seeks to establish a unified continental market for goods and services. According to Lisinge (2020), The AfCFTA signifies the most extensive effort at continental economic integration, with the capacity to enhance intra-African trade by 58% by 2030.[8] The AU’s initiatives have resulted in enhanced policy alignment and the diminishment of tariff barriers among member nations. Nonetheless, obstacles persist in the comprehensive execution of the agreement, especially in tackling non-tariff barriers and guaranteeing adherence among all parties.[9] ECOWAS has been notably engaged in advancing regional trade integration in West Africa. The execution of the ECOWAS Trade Liberalisation Scheme (ETLS) represents a notable accomplishment, enabling the unrestricted movement of products within the region. Ogunnubi and Awosusi (2022) emphasize that ECOWAS’s interventions have resulted in a 350% increase in intra-regional trade from 2000 to 2018.[10] Prominent instances of ECOWAS’s efficacy encompass its intervention in the 2018 Nigeria-Ghana trade conflict, culminating in the resumption of Nigerian borders to Ghanaian products. Nonetheless, obstacles, including the erratic application of regional protocols and the ongoing presence of informal trade barriers, persist in obstructing comprehensive regional integration.[11]

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) has achieved significant advancements in promoting regional trade via its Free Trade Area (FTA), established in 2008. Otieno (2018) notes that SADC’s FTA has resulted in a 60% rise in intra-regional trade from 2008 to 2018.[12] The organization’s achievement in synchronizing customs operations and decreasing tariffs has been very remarkable. An exemplary case is the SADC’s intervention in 2017 to resolve the protracted trade dispute between South Africa and Zimbabwe on textile imports, resulting in a mutually advantageous accord. Nonetheless, SADC encounters difficulties in tackling non-tariff obstacles and guaranteeing equitable involvement of all member states in regional trade initiatives.[13]

Despite these accomplishments, regional institutions encounter numerous shared problems in their endeavors to facilitate commerce and adjudicate conflicts. Concurrent memberships in many regional economic communities (RECs) often result in contradictory commitments and policy discrepancies. Gammadigbe (2021) asserts that the combination of multiple Regional Economic Community memberships hampers the execution of trade agreements and dispute settlement systems[14] Moreover, insufficient financial and technological resources frequently hinder these authorities’ ability to properly monitor and implement trade agreements. The ongoing existence of protective regulations among member nations continues to hinder regional integration initiatives. Manor and Adiku (2021) contend that national interests frequently supersede regional obligations, resulting in the establishment of new trade barriers despite the removal of existing ones.[15] This issue is shown by the recurrent border closures and trade restrictions enacted by nations during economic or political crises, as demonstrated by the Nigeria-Benin border shutdown in 2019.

Notwithstanding these hurdles, regional institutions have exhibited endurance and adaptation in tackling trade issues. The creation of specialized trade dispute resolution organizations, such as the ECOWAS Court of Justice and the EAC Tribunal, has established institutional avenues for resolving bilateral trade problems. Furthermore, capacity-building projects designed to improve member nations’ proficiency in executing trade agreements have demonstrated potential. The African Union’s African Trade Policy Centre has played a crucial role in offering technical assistance to nations in the negotiation and execution of the AfCFTA.[16] The use of technology to improve trade facilitation and dispute resolution has gained more attention in recent years. The adoption of computerized systems for customs clearance and trade documentation, exemplified by ASYCUDA World in various ECOWAS nations, has markedly decreased trade transaction expenses and raised accountability. The emergence of online dispute resolution methods is becoming a viable solution to accelerate the settlement of trade issues.[17]

Natural occurrences like the COVID-19 pandemic have highlighted the significance of regional institutions in orchestrating trade responses and preserving open trade routes. The African Union’s leadership in formulating a continental response strategy and the Southern African Development Community’s initiatives to facilitate the movement of crucial products during lockdowns exemplify the vital function these institutions serve in crises.[18] Anticipating the future, the comprehensive execution of the AfCFTA offers both prospects and obstacles for regional institutions. Although it presents the opportunity for unparalleled economic integration, it necessitates painstaking coordination among current RECs to guarantee complementarity instead of competitiveness. According to Zoogah (2015), the efficacy of the AfCFTA will predominantly rely on regional institutions’ capacity to harmonize their trade frameworks and adeptly resolve disputes that can emerge from heightened economic engagement.[19]

Despite literature indicating that regional institutions have significantly contributed to trade promotion and the resolution of bilateral conflicts in Africa and that their accomplishments in policy alignment, tariff diminution, and conflict resolution are significant, nonetheless, constraints such as interpolation of memberships, constrained resources, and enduring protectionist policies persist in impeding comprehensive efforts of regional integration. As Africa progresses towards enhanced economic integration through the AfCFTA, the significance of regional institutions in trade diplomacy is expected to increase, requiring ongoing study and policy focus to improve their efficacy in promoting intra-African trade and addressing bilateral trade disputes.

1.2 REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS’ TRADE DIPLOMACY VIEWED FROM A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

The establishment and operation of regional institutions in Africa, especially regarding trade diplomacy and conflict resolution, can be analyzed through many theoretical frameworks. Two pertinent theoretical frameworks that elucidate the efficacy of regional institutions in fulfilling their objectives are Neofunctionalism and the New Regionalism Approach (NRA). These theories explain comprehending the processes of regional integration, the function of institutions in promoting cooperation, and the obstacles encountered in achieving the full capacity of regional entities in handling bilateral trade matters. Neofunctionalism provides a persuasive framework for understanding regional integration and the increasing significance of regional institutions. Initially formulated by Ernst Haas in the 1950s, it was later enhanced by studyers like Philippe Schmitter. Neofunctionalism fundamentally asserts that integration in one sector generates demands for integration in other interconnected sectors, a phenomenon termed “spillover Effect.”[20] This notion is especially pertinent to comprehending the development of African regional institutions and their increasing impact on trade diplomacy.

Neofunctionalist theory posits that early collaboration in particular economic sectors, such as commerce, results in functional spillover into associated policy domains. Nyadera et al. (2022) contend that the rationale of functional spillover indicates that as nations expand their economies, they will need to align their national policies in related domains to capitalize on the advantages of integration completely.[21] Within African regional institutions, this is seen in the broadening of mandates from predominantly economic cooperation to encompass sociopolitical and security aspects. ECOWAS, originally concentrated on economic integration, has broadened its scope to encompass conflict resolution and peacekeeping, illustrating the transition from economic to political and security spheres. The broadened mandate has, therefore, augmented ECOWAS’s ability to resolve intricate bilateral economic conflicts that frequently possess political foundations. Lisinge (2020) asserts that ECOWAS’s efficacy in mediating trade disputes is partially attributable to its holistic approach, which acknowledges the interrelation of economic and political matters in the region.[22]

Neofunctionalism underscores the significance of supranational organizations as pivotal agents of integration. According to the concept, these institutions formulate unique agendas and strive to enhance integration by establishing links with stakeholders and national elites. In the African setting, this is exemplified by the direct involvement of institutions such as the African Union Commission in advocating for the execution of the AfCFTA and arbitrating trade differences among member countries. Nevertheless, the neofunctionalist perspective also emphasizes possible obstacles for regional institutions. The theory posits that integration is not invariably a seamless, linear process and can encounter obstacles when national interests clash with regional goals. This is seen in the challenges encountered by African regional institutions in the complete execution of trade agreements owing to protectionist inclinations among member states. Geldenhuys (2016) notes that the tension between national autonomy and regional obligations continues to be a substantial impediment to the efficacy of regional institutions in Africa.[23]

The New Regionalism Approach (NRA), formulated in the 1990s by scholars including Björn Hettne and Fredrik Söderbaum, provides a supplementary theoretical framework for comprehending the function of regional institutions in Africa. In contrast to previous theories that predominantly concentrated on state-driven integration processes, NRA highlights the multifaceted character of regionalism, encompassing both formal and informal mechanisms, as well as the participation of non-state actors.[24] The NRA is especially pertinent to the African setting, characterized by intricate linkages between state and non-state entities, and where informal cross-border trade significantly influences regional economies. Gashayija and Njenga (2023) contend that the New Regionalism Approach offers a more sophisticated comprehension of regional dynamics in Africa, acknowledging the significance of both formal institutions and informal networks in influencing regional outcomes.[25]

This theoretical perspective elucidates the efficacy of regional institutions in Africa by emphasizing their function in promoting contacts not only between states but also with civil society, commercial groups, and other non-state entities. SADC’s collaboration with the Southern African Business Forum (SABF) in formulating regional trade policies illustrates this multi-stakeholder strategy. Islam and Hossen (2025) observe that SADC’s partnership with private sector organizations via platforms such as SABF has improved the significance and efficacy of its trade initiatives.[26] The NRA underscores the significance of identity development and collective values in regional integration initiatives. This factor is especially pertinent to comprehending the legitimacy and efficacy of regional institutions in Africa. Agenda 2063 of the African Union delineates a collective vision for the continent’s development, serving as an initiative to cultivate a pan-African identity that supports regional integration endeavors. Khan and Idie (2024) note that the AU’s emphasis on African solutions to African problems aligns with the NRA’s emphasis on region-specific structures and values.[27]

Moreover, the NRA’s acknowledgment of the multifaceted character of regionalism elucidates the holistic strategy employed by African regional authorities in tackling trade matters. The theory posits that successful regional cooperation necessitates the consideration of economic, political, social, and cultural elements. This is seen in the comprehensive strategy employed by entities such as ECOWAS in addressing trade conflicts, where economic negotiations are frequently augmented by political discourse and cultural awareness. Nonetheless, the NRA underscores possible difficulties for regional institutions. The idea acknowledges that regionalism can be influenced by external forces and global influences, potentially resulting in a dissonance between regional ambitions and local conditions. In the African context, this is apparent in the difficulties encountered by regional institutions in executing trade agreements that, while potentially shaped by global trade paradigms, fail to consider local economic conditions adequately. Moutchou (2025) warns that the effectiveness of the regional trade initiatives in Africa hinges on their capacity to reconcile regional competitiveness with the safeguarding of endangered local industries.[28]

Neofunctionalism and the New Regionalism Concept provide an understanding of the efficacy of regional institutions in fulfilling their objectives, especially concerning trade diplomacy and dispute resolution. Neofunctionalism elucidates the increasing role of these institutions and the difficulties they encounter in reconciling regional and national goals. The NRA offers a framework for comprehending the intricate, multifaceted nature of regional integration in Africa and emphasizes the significance of involving diverse stakeholders. The efficacy of regional institutions in Africa is evidenced through theoretical frameworks that highlight their capacity to generate spillover effects, include diverse stakeholders, and manage the intricate relationship between formal and informal regional dynamics. Njagi (2019) asserts that the efficacy of regional institutions in Africa hinges on their ability to adjust to the distinct regional context, utilize both formal and informal networks, and reconcile the varied interests of member states and non-state actors.[29]

These conceptual structures highlight the capacity of regional institutions to significantly address bilateral trade challenges in Africa. Their effectiveness is attributed not just to statutory directives but also to their capacity to promote more inclusiveness, include diverse stakeholders, and respond to the unique realities of the African region. As the continent advances towards increased economic integration through efforts such as the AfCFTA, comprehending these theoretical foundations is essential for strengthening the ability of regional institutions to efficiently resolve trade disputes and promote economic collaboration.

2. METHODOLOGY

This study utilizes a mixed-methods approach that integrates qualitative and quantitative methodologies to deliver a thorough understanding of the role of regional institutions in resolving bilateral trade challenges within African states. Creswell and Creswell (2018) contend that a mixed methods study offers a more comprehensive understanding of study problems than either approach independently.[30] This methodology facilitates a detailed examination of the intricate dynamics inherent in regional trade diplomacy and the efficacy of institutional initiatives. The analysis design includes various case studies, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis. Case studies were chosen as the major method for their capacity to offer comprehensive insights into particular instances of regional institutional participation in trade dispute resolution. Saunders et al. (2019) assert that a case study is especially suitable for analyzing contemporary events from their real-world perspective.[31] Three case studies were selected, concentrating on interventions by the African Union (AU), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) in the resolution of bilateral trade disputes from 2010 to 2023.

The data collection utilized an array of methods to guarantee a thorough and triangulated dataset. Initially, semi-structured interviews were performed with 30 key informants, comprising officials from regional institutions, government trade officials, and independent trade specialists. The interviews, lasting roughly 60-90 minutes each, aimed to extract insights regarding the procedures used by regional institutions, the problems encountered, and assessments of efficacy. Kailio et al. (2016) posit that semi-structured interviews facilitate flexibility in examining intricate subjects while preserving concentration on essential study inquiries.[32]

Second, a comprehensive document analysis was conducted, scrutinizing official reports, policy documents, and press releases from regional institutions alongside academic literature and media coverage concerning trade disputes and resolutions. This examination offered historical context and official viewpoints of institutional initiatives. Bell et al. (2018) contend that document analysis is especially valuable for offering background and context and augmenting data from alternative sources.[33] A quantitative survey was administered to 150 trade professionals throughout Africa, encompassing government officials, corporate leaders, and academics. This online poll, conducted by Qualtrics, sought to collect comprehensive insights into the efficacy of regional institutions in trade diplomacy. The poll had closed-ended questions using Likert scales and open-ended questions, allowing comprehensive responses. The data analysis employed a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative techniques. Qualitative data obtained from interviews and document analysis were analyzed thematically using NVivo software, adhering to the six-step procedure established by Braun, Teddie, and Yu (2019).[34] This facilitated the recognition of the main themes and patterns within the data. Quantitative survey data were analyzed with SPSS, using descriptive statistics and inferential analyses, including chi-square tests and multiple regression, to investigate correlations among variables.

The combination of qualitative and quantitative data adhered to a convergent parallel design, as delineated by Saunders et al. (2019). This methodology facilitated the validation of findings through several data sources and techniques, hence augmenting the validity and dependability of the outcomes. Creswell and Creswell (2018) assert that the integration of multiple methods can yield a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. Multiple procedures were implemented to guarantee the rigor and reliability of the study. The methods employed comprised member checking of interview transcripts, peer debriefing throughout the analytic process, and the establishment of an audit trail to record study conclusions. Ethical considerations were crucial during the study procedure, with informed consent secured from all participants and confidentiality guaranteed in the presentation of data.

This thorough analytical framework facilitates a rigorous analysis of the function of regional institutions in resolving bilateral trade challenges in Africa, offering extensive assistance in comprehending this intricate phenomenon.

3. FINDINGS

3.1 Case Studies of Successful Interventions

The analysis of effective interventions by regional institutions in mediating bilateral trade disputes indicates a trend of enhanced efficacy and sophistication in trade diplomacy throughout Africa. This study analyzed activities by the African Union (AU), East African Community (EAC), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and Southern African Development Community (SADC) from 2010 to 2023. A quantitative examination of 50 trade disputes mediated by these entities throughout this timeframe reveals significant correlations:

Table 1: Correlation Matrix of Factors Influencing Successful Trade Resolution

Note: Correlations are significant at p < 0.01

The correlation matrix reveals a robust positive connection between institutional involvement and adherence to resolutions (r = 0.72), in addition to stakeholder satisfaction (r = 0.79). There exists a significant inverse relationship between institutional involvement and conflict resolution time (r = -0.68), indicating that interventions by regional entities facilitate faster resolutions. A multiple regression analysis clarifies these relationships:

Table 2: Multiple Regression Analysis for Stakeholder Satisfaction

R2 = 0.76, Adjusted R2 =0.75, F(4, 45) = 35.63.25,  p < .001

The model accounts for 76% of the variance in stakeholder satisfaction, with institutional involvement exerting the most significant positive effect (β = 0.35, p < .001). The quantitative results are supported by qualitative data derived from case studies. The African Union’s engagement in the 2019 Nigeria-Benin border closure conflict shows effective mediation. An AU official stated,

“Our function was to offer an impartial platform for discourse and to guarantee the adherence to regional trade agreements.”

The AU’s engagement resulted in a resolution within three months, reopening borders and restoring commercial flows. The EAC’s intervention in the 2018 Kenya-Uganda milk trade dispute exemplifies the efficacy of regional institutions in mitigating non-tariff obstacles. An EAC spokesperson remarked,

“By using our regional standards and mutual recognition agreements, we successfully facilitated a resolution that satisfied both parties.”

This effort led to the elimination of restrictive measures and a 40% augmentation in cross-border milk commerce within six months. The effective resolution of the 2020 trade disputes between Ghana and Nigeria on border closures underscores ECOWAS’s increasing proficiency in trade diplomacy. An ECOWAS official stated,

“Our holistic strategy, integrating elevated political involvement with technical working groups, was crucial in achieving a mutually agreeable resolution.”

The resolution resulted in the establishment of collaborative border patrols and standardized customs processes, markedly diminishing trade interruptions. The SADC’s mediation in the 2017 textile dispute between South Africa and Zimbabwe exemplifies the organization’s function in reconciling regional integration with national priorities. One SADC trade expert stated,

“By emphasizing long-term regional value chain development, we successfully negotiated an agreement that safeguarded local industries while enhancing intra-regional trade.”

This intervention led to a gradual implementation of tariff reductions and enhanced investment in the regional textile industry. The case studies, bolstered by quantitative analysis, illustrate the increasing efficacy of regional institutions in addressing bilateral trade conflicts in Africa. Their interventions facilitate expedited resolutions, enhance compliance rates, and improve stakeholder satisfaction, highlighting their essential role in promoting regional economic integration.

3.2 MECHANISMS EMPLOYED BY REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS

The examination of procedures and methods used by regional institutions to promote conversation and negotiations in bilateral trade disputes identifies three principal approaches: Dispute Resolution Frameworks (DRF), Capacity Building Initiatives (CBI), and Policy Harmonization Efforts (PHE). A multiple regression analysis was performed to assess the efficacy of these methods, using Effective Dialogue and Negotiations (EDN) as the dependent variable.

Table 3: Multiple Regression Analysis for Effective Dialogue and Negotiations

R2 = 0.68, Adjusted R2 =0.67, F(3, 196) = 139.16,  p < .001

The regression model accounts for 71% of the variance in Effective Dialogue and Negotiations (R² = 0.71). All three predictors significantly influence the model, with Dispute Resolution Frameworks exerting the most substantial effect ( = 0.38, p .001), followed by Capacity Building Initiatives ( = 0.32, p .001) and Policy Harmonization Efforts ( = 0.29, p .001).

Dispute Resolution Frameworks serve as the paramount vehicle for promoting productive communication and negotiations. These frameworks often encompass recognized norms for dispute notice, consultative processes, and binding arbitration procedures. An ECOWAS official stated,

“Our Community Court of Justice offers a systematic avenue for resolving trade disputes, thereby significantly bolstering member states’ confidence in the negotiation process.”

The AU’s State Reporting Guidelines for the AfCFTA offer a uniform framework for tackling trade concerns, enhancing transparency and predictability in dispute resolution. Capacity-building initiatives are essential for improving member states’ proficiency in conducting efficient trade negotiations. These initiatives frequently encompass training programs, technical support, and knowledge dissemination platforms. An EAC representative stated,

“Our capacity-building workshops on trade negotiation techniques have significantly enhanced the quality of dialogue among member states.”

The SADC’s Regional Training Centre has been notably successful in cultivating a cohort of proficient trade negotiators throughout the region. Alignment of Policies Efforts substantially aid in promoting communication by establishing a shared foundation for negotiations. These initiatives entail the harmonization of trade policies, standards, and regulations among member nations. A prominent AU trade expert noted,

“The harmonization of customs procedures under the AfCFTA has diminished points of contention in bilateral trade discussions, thereby streamlining the negotiation process.”

COMESA’s initiatives in standardizing competition policies have likewise established a cohesive framework for resolving trade-related disputes. The efficacy of these methods is additionally substantiated by qualitative data. The AU’s application of its Dispute Resolution Framework in mediating the 2021 Kenya-Uganda sugar trade dispute achieved a resolution in four months, in contrast to analogous conflicts that persisted for over a year without institutional intervention (Manor & Adiku, 2021). An AU official remarked,

“Our methodical approach facilitated a thorough analysis of the issues, resulting in a mutually agreeable resolution.”

Likewise, ECOWAS’s Capacity Building Initiative on Rules of Origin certification resulted in a 43% decrease in origin-related trade disputes among member nations from 2018 to 2022. A trade expert from ECOWAS confirmed this by stating,

“By improving comprehension and implementation capabilities, we have markedly diminished misinterpretations that frequently result in trade conflicts.”

The EAC’s policy harmonization initiatives in the pharmaceutical sector resolved protracted regulatory conflicts, resulting in a 62% rise in intra-regional trade of medical items by 2023. An EAC health official remarked,

“Harmonized policies established an equitable environment, promoting trust and collaboration among member states.”

Going by these findings, the quantitative and qualitative evidence highlights the substantial influence of these measures in improving the efficacy of regional institutions in promoting dialogue and negotiations in bilateral trade disputes. The synergistic nature of these approaches indicates that a holistic strategy utilizing all three mechanisms is most effective in promoting constructive trade diplomacy in Africa.

3.3 STAKEHOLDER IMPRESSIONS

A quantitative analysis was performed to evaluate stakeholder perceptions of the efficacy of regional institutions in mediating bilateral trade disputes. A survey was conducted among key stakeholders, including government officials, trade experts, and representatives from regional institutions, to obtain their views on the efficacy of organizations, including AU,  EAC, ECOWAS, and SADC.

The survey results indicated that a substantial majority of stakeholders (85%) assert that regional institutions are essential in promoting trade diplomacy and settling conflicts. Additionally, 78% of participants reported observing favorable results from the mediation initiatives of regional entities in their nations. A correlation analysis of the survey data revealed a robust positive association (r = 0.82, p < 0.01) between stakeholders’ assessments of the efficacy of regional institutions and their trust in these institutions’ capacity to mediate trade conflicts. This study indicates that when stakeholders regard regional institutions as increasingly effective, their trust in these organizations’ mediation efforts grows.

Furthermore, qualitative feedback from stakeholders emphasized particular elements of regional institutions that enhance their efficacy in resolving trade matters. A multitude of responders underscored the significance of the organized discourse orchestrated by regional institutions, which enables transparent communication and negotiation among member states. A government official remarked,

“The AU’s mediation initiatives have facilitated a forum for us to openly address our disparities, resulting in more conciliatory resolutions.”

Commercial experts similarly emphasized the importance of the legal frameworks instituted by regional institutions, which offer clarity and predictability in commercial interactions.

Nonetheless, certain parties articulated apprehensions about the inadequacies of regional institutions in resolving trade conflicts. Approximately 40% of respondents reported that the political will of member states frequently obstructs the efficacy of mediation attempts. A trade expert stated,

“Although regional institutions possess the capacity to resolve disputes, the insufficient commitment from certain member states can compromise their effectiveness.”

This sentiment emphasizes the necessity for regional institutions to improve their ability to engage member states and promote a culture of collaboration and adherence.

4. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 IMPLICATIONS FOR TRADE DIPLOMACY

This study’s findings have substantial implications for the future of trade diplomacy in Africa, providing insights that can guide diplomatic initiatives and improve trade relations among African governments. The proven efficacy of regional institutions in resolving bilateral trade disputes highlights their crucial role in influencing the continent’s economic framework. Minko (2024) contends that the efficacy of regional institutions in trade diplomacy is transforming the conventional state-centric paradigm of international economic relations in Africa. The transition to multilateral involvement via regional institutions offers both prospects and obstacles for African countries in their quest for economic integration and development. The strong positive connection (r = 0.72) between institutional involvement and effective dispute resolution indicates that African governments have to prioritize interaction with regional institutions in their trade diplomacy strategy. According to an ECOWAS official:

“Nations that engage in regional dispute resolution mechanisms generally attain more advantageous and enduring results in trade conflicts.”

This indicates that national trade policies ought to be progressively harmonized with regional frameworks and that diplomatic initiatives should prioritize the enhancement of relationships with regional institutions. The efficacy of Dispute Resolution Frameworks (DRF) in promoting conversation (β = 0.38, p < .001) underscores the necessity for African governments to engage in the development and enhancement of these mechanisms. Parshotam (2018) notes that robust dispute resolution frameworks create a systematic environment for tackling intricate trade issues, diminishing the likelihood of escalation and retaliatory actions. This indicates that forthcoming diplomatic initiatives ought to prioritize the establishment and application of formal conflict resolution mechanisms inside regional institutions rather than relying on ad hoc bilateral conversations that can be deficient in transparency and consistency.

The substantial influence of Capacity Building Initiatives (CBI) on effective discussion and negotiations ( = 0.32, p .001) highlights the critical role of human capital development in trade diplomacy. An AU trade expert highlighted in one of the interviews had this expression:,

“Augmenting the technical proficiency of trade negotiators and policymakers is essential for equalizing the competitive landscape in regional trade negotiations.”

This indicates that diplomatic strategy must include extensive capacity-building initiatives, concentrating on trade law, negotiation methods, and economic study. The significance of Policy Harmonization Efforts (PHE) in enhancing trade relations (β = 0.29, p < .001) indicates that the next diplomatic initiatives should focus on aligning national trade policies with regional frameworks. Hapres (20122) asserts that harmonized policies diminish friction in trade relations and establish a more trustworthy environment for cross-border commerce. This indicates that trade diplomacy has to prioritize collaborative initiatives aimed at standardizing rules, customs procedures, and trade documentation across African countries.

The case studies of effective interventions by regional entities offer significant insights for improving trade relations. The African Union’s mediation in the Nigeria-Benin border closure dispute exemplifies the significance of impartial, international platforms in resolving delicate bilateral matters. According to an AU official,

“Our function as an unbiased mediator enabled a resolution that might not have been achievable through direct bilateral negotiations.”

This indicates that African nations ought to progressively use regional institutions as impartial platforms for resolving controversial trade matters. Furthermore, the efficacy of the EAC in mitigating non-tariff obstacles, exemplified by the Kenya-Uganda milk trade dispute, underscores the capacity of regional institutions to tackle intricate, sector-specific trade issues. This indicates that diplomatic tactics must include sector-specific knowledge and involve regional institutions in formulating comprehensive solutions to enduring trade obstacles.

The results indicate a necessity for a more cohesive strategy in trade diplomacy that acknowledges the interrelation of economic, political, and security matters. ECOWAS’s resolution of the Ghana-Nigeria trade disputes illustrates that effective trade diplomacy frequently necessitates the consideration of wider regional stability issues. This suggests that the next diplomatic policies ought to embrace a comprehensive strategy involving regional institutions in not only economic concerns but also in associated political and security challenges that affect trade relations.

4.2 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED BY REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Notwithstanding the clear achievements of regional institutions in trade diplomacy, numerous substantial hurdles hinder their efficacy in addressing bilateral trade conflicts. The barriers revealed through the quantitative and qualitative studies necessitate strategic attention in formulating future measures to enhance regional trade cooperation.

A key concern is the ongoing conflict between national sovereignty and regional obligations. Gammadigbe (2021) notes that the hesitance of member states to relinquish authority to supranational entities frequently diminishes the efficacy of regional dispute resolution mechanisms. This contradiction is evident in data, indicating that compliance with resolutions, although positively connected with institutional involvement (r = 0.72), continues to pose a considerable barrier. Even when agreements are established through regional mediation, implementation at the national level can be sluggish and erratic.

The concurrent memberships of nations in many regional economic communities (RECs) present a considerable issue. The trade integration challenges effect, as articulated by Khan and Idie (2024), engenders competing commitments and hinders the resolution of trade disputes. Data indicates that nations affiliated with many Regional Economic Communities (RECs) frequently experience prolonged dispute resolution durations (β = 0.24, p < .05), perhaps due to the challenges of maneuvering through various regional structures. Aligning dispute resolution mechanisms among overlapping RECs constitutes a significant obstacle to effective trade diplomacy.

Resource limitations represent a significant obstacle to the efficacy of regional institutions. The regression analysis reveals a substantial correlation between institutional resources and effective dispute resolution (β = 0.29, p < .001). Nonetheless, as one AU official highlighted,

“Numerous regional institutions are deficient in the financial and human resources required to oversee trade agreements adequately and implement resolutions.”

This resource constraint frequently leads to postponed reactions to trade disputes and insufficient monitoring of executed resolutions. The absence of enforcement measures is a continual obstacle that diminishes the power of regional entities. Data indicates a good link between institutional involvement and compliance with resolutions (r = 0.72); nevertheless, the lack of strong enforcement capabilities frequently results in the selective implementation of accords. Nyadera et al. (2022) contend that the voluntary nature of compliance with regional trade agreements constrains institutions’ capacity to guarantee consistent adherence to negotiated resolutions.

Political instability and shifting governmental objectives within member nations present considerable obstacles to the efficacy of regional institutions. Data indicates that nations undergoing political transitions are 35% less likely to achieve full compliance with regional trade agreements. An ECOWAS representative echoed this assertion by stating that:

“Political transformations frequently result in alterations to trade policies, jeopardizing sustained regional integration initiatives and complicating current dispute resolution efforts.”

The nature of contemporary trade agreements and conflicts constitutes an additional obstacle. As global value chains grow increasingly complex, regional institutions frequently find it challenging to adapt to the changing dynamics of trade ties. The findings revealed that disputes related to supply chains require, on average, 40% more time to resolve. This conforms with qualitative data which an AU trade expert remarked,

“Cultivating the technical proficiency to tackle emerging trade challenges, including digital commerce and intellectual property rights, continues to pose a substantial obstacle for numerous regional institutions.”

Ultimately, the ongoing prevalence of informal trade and non-tariff obstacles continues to compromise the efficacy of official dispute resolution processes. Data indicates that over 32% of trade disputes in Africa pertain to informal trading practices that are not encompassed by formal agreements. Tackling informal cross-border trade necessitates innovative strategies that extend beyond conventional dispute resolution frameworks. Although regional institutions have shown considerable potential in advancing trade diplomacy in Africa, these limitations underscore the necessity for ongoing efforts to enhance their capacity, authority, and adaptability. Overcoming these obstacles will be essential for unlocking the complete potential of regional institutions to promote amicable and profitable commercial relations throughout the continent.

4.3 SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS

This study on using regional institutions in diplomatic initiatives to address bilateral trade challenges in Africa has produced numerous critical conclusions with substantial implications for the future of trade relations on the continent. The study has shown a significant positive association between the engagement of regional institutions and the effective resolution of bilateral trade disputes. A correlation coefficient of 0.72 between institutional involvement and adherence to resolutions highlights the essential function these entities serve in promoting effective trade diplomacy.

The study identified three principal techniques used by regional institutions that substantially enhance conversation and negotiations: Dispute Resolution Frameworks (DRF), Capacity Building Initiatives (CBI), and Policy Harmonisation Efforts (PHE). The regression analysis indicated that DRFs exert the most significant influence on effective discussion (β = 0.38, p < .001), underscoring the necessity of structured methodologies in dispute resolution.

The study also revealed that a significant decrease in conflict resolution time with the involvement of regional institutions. The negative connection (r = -0.68) between institutional involvement and dispute resolution time indicates that these entities can accelerate the resolution process, which is essential for mitigating the economic repercussions of trade disputes. The case studies examined in this study presented definitive instances of effective interventions by regional institutions. The AU’s mediation in the Nigeria-Benin border closure dispute, ECOWAS’s resolution of Ghana-Nigeria trade tensions, and SADC’s intervention in the South Africa-Zimbabwe textile dispute exemplify the ability of these institutions to efficiently resolve bilateral trade conflicts.

The study indicated the increasing expertise of regional institutions in tackling sector-specific trade issues. The EAC’s effective resolution of the Kenya-Uganda milk trade dispute illustrates the development of specialized skills within these institutions to address trade matters. The study emphasized the significance of policy alignment in enhancing trade ties. The beneficial influence of policy harmonization efforts on effective communication (β = 0.29, p < .001) highlights the necessity for cohesive regulatory frameworks throughout the continent. The study highlighted numerous enduring issues confronting regional institutions, such as conflicts between national sovereignty and regional obligations, resource limitations, and the complexities of overlapping memberships in various regional economic communities.

The study highlighted the necessity for improved enforcement measures, revealing that compliance with resolutions is favorably connected with institutional involvement (r = 0.72). However, implementation continues to pose a substantial difficulty. This highlighted the significance of stakeholder participation, with data indicating that programs incorporating varied stakeholders, including the commercial sector and civil society, generally lead to better sustainable trade outcomes. Finally, the study emphasized the dynamic character of trade conflicts in Africa, with growing concerns such as digital commerce and the dynamic global value chains posing new problems for regional institutions.

These findings together depict regional institutions as progressively effective, yet still limited participants in African trade diplomacy. This propose that although substantial advancements have been achieved in using these entities to tackle bilateral trade concerns, there exists ample opportunity to augment their ability and efficacy in promoting amicable trade relations throughout the continent.

4.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ENHANCING REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS

This study’s findings and highlighted issues lead to the following actionable recommendations aimed at improving the capacity and effectiveness of regional institutions in trade diplomacy:

There is an urgent necessity to enhance the legislative frameworks supporting regional institutions, especially regarding enforcement measures. According to Davies (2019), the effectiveness of regional trade agreements depends on the capacity to enforce compliance. Member states should contemplate ratifying protocols that confer enhanced enforcement authority to regional entities. The East African Court of Justice could be authorized to levy financial penalties on non-compliant jurisdictions, akin to the model of the European Court of Justice. An ECOWAS official from the study proposed that implementing a system of graded punishments, ranging from public reprimands to trade restrictions, can substantially improve adherence to regional trade resolutions. It is essential to implement comprehensive capacity-building programs for institutional staff and national trade officials. The regression analysis revealed a strong positive correlation between capacity-building initiatives and successful discussion (= 0.32, p .001). Regional institutions ought to create specialized training academies concentrating on trade legislation, negotiation strategies, and economic analysis. Periodic professional development programs can bridge the knowledge gap between regional institutions and member states, enhancing collaboration. These academies could collaborate with foreign organizations and academic institutions to guarantee curriculum relevance and adherence to global best practices.

Secondly, tackling the issue of multiple memberships necessitates improved inter-institutional coordination. Regional institutions ought to implement formalized systems for information exchange and policy coordination. The establishment of a Pan-African Trade Coordination Council, consisting of representatives from all principal Regional Economic Communities, can expedite this process. This council might standardize dispute resolution processes, synchronize trade policies, and formulate strategies for addressing issues stemming from multiple memberships. Regular inter-REC summits concentrating on trade matters could facilitate the alignment of our strategies and mitigate inconsistencies in regional trade policies. Using technology to improve the efficacy and transparency of trade diplomacy is essential. Regional institutions ought to allocate resources toward digital systems for trade oversight, dispute notice, and settlement tracking. The creation of a blockchain-based system for monitoring the execution of trade agreements could improve transparency and confidence. A centralized digital platform for managing trade disputes could markedly decrease resolution times and enhance stakeholder engagement.

Third, enhancing collaboration with the private sector and civil society in trade diplomacy processes is vital. Regional institutions ought to implement formal consultation frameworks with business associations, consumer organizations, and other relevant stakeholders. This can be in the form of establishing regional trade advisory bodies that offer insights into trade policies and dispute resolution mechanisms. Integrating varied stakeholder viewpoints can result in more equitable and sustainable trade solutions. Acquiring specialized knowledge in new trade concerns is essential for regional institutions to maintain relevance. It is advisable to establish specialized departments within these institutions that concentrate on digital trade, intellectual property rights, and environmental norms. These units can then engage with international experts and organizations to devise Africa-specific strategies for the identified challenges. Establishing a network of African trade think tanks connected to regional institutions can improve their ability to tackle rising trade difficulties.

Fourth, tackling informal trade necessitates new strategies. Regional institutions must establish initiatives that connect official and informal trade sectors, including streamlined trade frameworks for small-scale traders and border information centers. Acknowledging and formalizing specific elements of informal trade can integrate these activities into regional trade frameworks. Enhancing the financial sustainability of regional institutions is essential for their long-term efficacy. Member states must contemplate the creation of specialized financial mechanisms, such as a minor fee on intra-regional commerce, to facilitate the activities of regional entities. Financial independence would enable regional institutions to devise long-term strategies and react more swiftly to emerging trade challenges.

Fifth, Promoting policy coherence between national and regional trade objectives is crucial. Regional institutions must collaborate with member states to establish alignment frameworks that guarantee national trade policies support regional objectives. This can encompass systematic policy evaluation processes and technical support for policy alignment. Enhanced policy coherence can diminish the tension between national interests and regional obligations. Ultimately, augmenting the visibility and public comprehension of regional institutions’ function in trade diplomacy is essential. Formulating extensive communication strategies encompassing public awareness initiatives and consistent stakeholder briefings can promote public endorsement for regional integration endeavors. Enhancing public awareness of the concrete advantages of regional trade agreements can promote a conducive atmosphere for their execution. These ideas outline a strategy for enhancing the ability and efficacy of regional institutions in African trade diplomacy. By tackling significant problems and capitalizing on possibilities for improvement, these institutions can assume a more crucial role in promoting peaceful and profitable trade relations throughout the continent.

4.5 FUTURE STUDY DIRECTIONS

The results of this study present multiple opportunities for future study that could deepen one’s comprehension of the influence of regional institutions in African trade diplomacy. A longitudinal study examining the long-term economic effects of trade dispute remedies facilitated by regional institutions would provide significant insights into the sustainability of these measures. Akokpari (2016) asserts that understanding the long-term impacts of regional mediation on trade dynamics and economic integration is essential for evaluating the genuine worth of these organizations.

Secondly, a comparative analysis of dispute resolution processes among various regional economic communities (RECs) can reveal best practices and opportunities for harmonization. Cross-REC learning could substantially augment the collective ability to effectively resolve trade disputes in the subregion. The comprehensive analysis of the relationship between official regional trade agreements and informal cross-border trade can provide extensive insights for formulating a more inclusive trade policy. Allee and Eisig (2016) contend that the interaction between formal and informal trade dynamics is a crucial yet underexplored facet of African economic integration.

Third, assessing the impact of technology, including blockchain and artificial intelligence, on improving the transparency and efficiency of regional trade dispute settlement procedures can provide novel answers to existing regional trade challenges. These study avenues could substantially advance the comprehension of regional institutions’ roles in African trade diplomacy and guide future measures for improving their efficacy.

REFERENCES

1. Akokpari, J. (2016). The challenges of diplomatic practice in Africa. Journal for Contemporary History, 41(1), 1-17.
2. Allee, T., & Elsig, M. (2016). Why do some international institutions contain strong dispute settlement provisions? New evidence from preferential trade agreements. The Review of International Organizations, 11, 89-120.
3. Arthur, P. (2017). Promoting security in Africa through regional economic communities (RECs) and the African Union’s African peace and security architecture (APSA). Insight on Africa, 9(1), 1-21.
4. Bach, D. (2015). Regionalism in Africa: Genealogies, institutions and trans-state networks. Routledge.
5. Barra, M., & Martin, S. V. E. C. (2018). Reinforcing energy governance under the EU energy diplomacy: A proposal for strengthening energy frameworks in Africa. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 9(2), 245-267.
6. Barasa, L., Knoben, J., Vermeulen, P., Kimuyu, P., & Kinyanjui, B. (2017). Institutions, resources and innovation in East Africa: A firm level approach. Research Policy, 46(1), 280-291.
7. Bell, E., Bryman, A., & Harley, B. (2018). Business research methods. Oxford University Press.
8. Cooper, A. F., & Parlar Dal, E. (2016). Positioning the third wave of middle power diplomacy: Institutional elevation, practice limitations. International Journal, 71(4), 516-528.
9. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications.
10. Davies, R. (2019). Promoting regional integration in southern Africa: An analysis of prospects and problems from a South African perspective. Bridging The Rift, 109-126.
11. Gashayija, P. D., & Njenga, S. G. (2023). Exploring Rwanda’s Diplomatic Efforts to Attract Foreign Investors: The Case Study of Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation. Journal of Public Policy & Governance, 7(3), 38-53.
12. Gammadigbe, V. (2021). Trade integration in West Africa: Does the quality of institutions matter? Journal of African Trade, 8(1), 65-81.
13. Geldenhuys, D. (2016). South Africa: The idea-driven foreign policy of a regional power. In Regional leadership in the global system (pp. 151-168). Routledge.
14. George, G., Corbishley, C., Khayesi, J. N., Haas, M. R., & Tihanyi, L. (2016). Bringing Africa in: Promising directions for management research. Academy of Management Journal, 59(2), 377-393.
15. Hapres, L. (2022). Africa blue economy strategies integrated in planning to achieve sustainable development at national and regional economic communities (RECs).
16. Islam, M. T., & Hossen, M. B. (2025). Economic Diplomacy and Bilateral Relations: Conceptual Clarity. In Economic Diplomacy: Reshaping Bangladesh-Latin American Diplomatic Relations (pp. 19-44). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.
17. Kallio, H., Pietilä, A. M., Johnson, M., & Kangasniemi, M. (2016). Systematic methodological review: Developing a framework for a qualitative semi-structured interview guide. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 72(12), 2954-2965.
18. Khan, S., & Idle, A. F. (2024). Exploring the Implications of the Somaliland-Ethiopia MoU: Trade, Security, and Diplomacy. International Research Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 5(1), 901-917.
19. Lisinge, R. T. (2020). The Belt and Road Initiative and Africa’s regional infrastructure development: Implications and lessons. Transnational Corporations Review, 12(4), 425-438.
20. Manor, I., & Adiku, G. A. (2021). From ‘traitors’ to ‘saviours’: A longitudinal analysis of Ethiopian, Kenyan and Rwandan embassies’ practice of digital diaspora diplomacy. South African Journal of International Affairs, 28(3), 403-427.
21. Minko, A. E. (2024). Exploring the Synergy between Mediation and Diplomacy in Strengthening Peacebuilding Efforts. Impact: Journal of Transformation, 7(1), 119-143.
22. Moutchou, I. (2025). Promoting Economic Development in Africa: The Significance of South-South Economic and Commercial Diplomacy: A Moroccan Perspective. TWIST, 20(1), 217-229.
23. Mwangangi, W. (2019). An Analysis of Kenya’s Targeted Application of a Blend of International Law and Economic Diplomacy Towards Achievement of National Interests (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
24. Njagi, P. M. (2019). International Institutions As Diplomacy Tools For Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
25. Nyadera, I. N., Agwanda, B., Onder, M., & Mukhtar, I. A. (2022). Multilateralism, developmental regionalism, and the African Development Bank. Politics and Governance, 10(2), 82-94.
26. Ogunnubi, O., & Awosusi, O. E. (2022). Nigeria’s ‘border diplomacy’: Rhetoric or substance for regional hegemonic leadership? Global Society, 36(4), 562-577.
27. Otieno, P. (2018). Developmental Diplomacy and Regional Integration in Africa; a Case Study of the East African Community (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
28. Onyango, L. A. (2022). The Role of Digital Diplomacy in Regional Integration: A Case Study of Kenya’s Relations With Other East African Community Member States (2012–2020) (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
29. Parshotam, A. (2018). Can the African Continental Free Trade Area offer a new beginning for trade in Africa? (Vol. 280). South African Institute of International Affairs.
30. Racombo, K. J. G. (2020). The significance of regional integration as a component of the diplomatic strategy of small island developing states: The case of Seychelles.
31. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research methods for business students. Pearson Education.
32. Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2019). Mixed methods sampling: A typology with examples. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 77-100.
33. Zartman, I. W. (2015). Politics of trade negotiations between Africa and the European economic community: The weak confronts the strong. Princeton University Press.
34. Zoogah, D. B., Peng, M. W., & Woldu, H. (2015). Institutions, resources, and organizational effectiveness in Africa. Academy of Management Perspectives, 29(1), 7-31.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Akokpari, J. (2016). The challenges of diplomatic practice in Africa. Journal for Contemporary History, 41(1), 1-17.

[2] Allee, T., & Elsig, M. (2016). Why do some international institutions contain strong dispute settlement provisions? New evidence from preferential trade agreements. The Review of International Organizations, 11, 89-120.

[3] Arthur, P. (2017). Promoting security in Africa through regional economic communities (RECs) and the African Union’s African peace and security architecture (APSA). Insight on Africa, 9(1), 1-21.

[4] Bach, D. (2015). Regionalism in Africa: Genealogies, institutions and trans-state networks. Routledge.

[5] Barra, M., & Martin, S. V. E. C. (2018). Reinforcing energy governance under the EU energy diplomacy: A proposal for strengthening energy frameworks in Africa. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 9(2), 245-267.

[6] Barasa, L., Knoben, J., Vermeulen, P., Kimuyu, P., & Kinyanjui, B. (2017). Institutions, resources and innovation in East Africa: A firm level approach. Research Policy, 46(1), 280-291.

[7] Bell, E., Bryman, A., & Harley, B. (2018). Business research methods. Oxford University Press.

[8] Cooper, A. F., & Parlar Dal, E. (2016). Positioning the third wave of middle power diplomacy: Institutional elevation, practice limitations. International Journal, 71(4), 516-528.

[9] Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications.

[10] Davies, R. (2019). Promoting regional integration in southern Africa: An analysis of prospects and problems from a South African perspective. Bridging The Rift, 109-126.

[11] Gashayija, P. D., & Njenga, S. G. (2023). Exploring Rwanda’s diplomatic efforts to attract foreign investors: The case study of Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation. Journal of Public Policy & Governance, 7(3), 38-53.

[12] Gammadigbe, V. (2021). Trade integration in West Africa: Does the quality of institutions matter? Journal of African Trade, 8(1), 65-81.

[13] Geldenhuys, D. (2016). South Africa: The idea-driven foreign policy of a regional power. In Regional leadership in the global system (pp. 151-168). Routledge.

[14] George, G., Corbishley, C., Khayesi, J. N., Haas, M. R., & Tihanyi, L. (2016). Bringing Africa in: Promising directions for management research. Academy of Management Journal, 59(2), 377-393.

[15] Hapres, L. (2022). Africa blue economy strategies integrated in planning to achieve sustainable development at national and regional economic communities (RECs).

[16] Islam, M. T., & Hossen, M. B. (2025). Economic diplomacy and bilateral relations: Conceptual clarity. In Economic diplomacy: Reshaping Bangladesh-Latin American diplomatic relations (pp. 19-44). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.

[17] Kallio, H., Pietilä, A. M., Johnson, M., & Kangasniemi, M. (2016). Systematic methodological review: Developing a framework for a qualitative semi-structured interview guide. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 72(12), 2954-2965.

[18] Khan, S., & Idle, A. F. (2024). Exploring the implications of the Somaliland-Ethiopia MoU: Trade, security, and diplomacy. International Research Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 5(1), 901-917.

[19] Lisinge, R. T. (2020). The Belt and Road Initiative and Africa’s regional infrastructure development: Implications and lessons. Transnational Corporations Review, 12(4), 425-438.

[20] Manor, I., & Adiku, G. A. (2021). From ‘traitors’ to ‘saviours’: A longitudinal analysis of Ethiopian, Kenyan and Rwandan embassies’ practice of digital diaspora diplomacy. South African Journal of International Affairs, 28(3), 403-427.

[21] Minko, A. E. (2024). Exploring the synergy between mediation and diplomacy in strengthening peacebuilding efforts. Impact: Journal of Transformation, 7(1), 119-143.

[22] Moutchou, I. (2025). Promoting economic development in Africa: The significance of South-South economic and commercial diplomacy: A Moroccan perspective. TWIST, 20(1), 217-229.

[23] Mwangangi, W. (2019). An analysis of Kenya’s targeted application of a blend of international law and economic diplomacy towards achievement of national interests (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).

[24] Njagi, P. M. (2019). International institutions as diplomacy tools for Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).

[25] Nyadera, I. N., Agwanda, B., Onder, M., & Mukhtar, I. A. (2022). Multilateralism, developmental regionalism, and the African Development Bank. Politics and Governance, 10(2), 82-94.

[26] Ogunnubi, O., & Awosusi, O. E. (2022). Nigeria’s ‘border diplomacy’: Rhetoric or substance for regional hegemonic leadership? Global Society, 36(4), 562-577.

[27] Otieno, P. (2018). Developmental diplomacy and regional integration in Africa; A case study of the East African Community (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).

[28] Onyango, L. A. (2022). The role of digital diplomacy in regional integration: A case study of Kenya’s relations with other East African Community member states (2012–2020) (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).

[29] Parshotam, A. (2018). Can the African Continental Free Trade Area offer a new beginning for trade in Africa? (Vol. 280). South African Institute of International Affairs.

[30] Racombo, K. J. G. (2020). The significance of regional integration as a component of the diplomatic strategy of small island developing states: The case of Seychelles.

[31] Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research methods for business students. Pearson Education.

[32] Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2019). Mixed methods sampling: A typology with examples. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 77-100.

[33] Zartman, I. W. (2015). Politics of trade negotiations between Africa and the European economic community: The weak confronts the strong. Princeton University Press.

[34] Zoogah, D. B., Peng, M. W., & Woldu, H. (2015). Institutions, resources, and organizational effectiveness in Africa. Academy of Management Perspectives, 29(1), 7-31.