ABSTRACT

1.     Introduction

Family farming is the backbone of rural economies in sub-Saharan Africa, providing a critical part of food security and supporting the livelihoods of millions of people. In Togo, this mode of production represents nearly 94% of farms. It contributes significantly to agricultural gross domestic product, although smallholders face significant structural challenges such as limited access to inputs and modern technologies.[1] Nigeria, the continent’s largest economy, relies heavily on family farming, which relies on plots of less than one hectare per household, and diversification strategies including mixed cropping and livestock rearing.[2]^,[3]

However, this agriculture, although resilient, is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Irregular rainfall, rising temperatures, and the increased frequency of extreme events such as droughts and floods compromise agricultural production and threaten food security.[4] These climate disruptions have direct economic repercussions, leading to lower yields, volatile agricultural prices, and increased precariousness for small producers.[5] From an ecological perspective, the intensification of unsustainable practices such as deforestation to expand cultivated areas and soil depletion exacerbates ecosystem degradation and reduces the adaptive capacity of farms.[6]

In the face of these challenges, it is essential to examine the strategies implemented by farmers to adapt to new climate constraints. Various approaches are employed, from selecting drought-resilient varieties to adopting agroecological techniques, including institutional measures such as access to green financing.[7] However, the effectiveness and sustainability of these solutions largely depend on each country’s socioeconomic and political context.[8]  Therefore, a comparative analysis between Togo and Nigeria makes it possible to identify specific dynamics and assess the determining factors of effective and sustainable adaptation.

In a context where climate disruptions are becoming increasingly frequent and severe, it is imperative to analyze how family farming adapts and what the economic and ecological implications are. Thus, several questions arise: How does climate change impact family farming in Togo and Nigeria? What adaptation strategies have farmers and institutions developed? What are the economic and environmental issues associated with these adaptation mechanisms?

This article examines these issues by reviewing the scientific and institutional literature. More specifically, it will (i) identify the main climate threats to family farming in these two countries, (ii) analyze the adaptation strategies implemented and their effectiveness, and (iii) evaluate the economic and ecological impacts of these strategies, highlighting their opportunities and limitations. Togo and Nigeria will adopt a comparative approach to conduct this study. Although these two countries belong to the same climatic region, they have distinct economic and institutional structures that influence the resilience of their family farming.

2.     Impacts of Climate Change on Family Farming in Togo and Nigeria

2.1.  Climate Change Protests in Togo and Nigeria

Climate change is leading to a radical transformation of weather patterns in Togo and Nigeria, characterized by rising average temperatures and increased irregularity of rainfall. The West African region has experienced an average increase of 0.5 to 1.5°C since the beginning of the 20th century, and projections suggest an increase of up to 4.5°C by 2100 in the most pessimistic scenarios.[9] In Togo, the National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (PNACC) shows an increase of 1°C between 1962 and 2012, accompanied by decreased rainfall in the south and a slight increase in precipitation in the northeast.[10] In Nigeria, northern regions experience extreme rainfall variability, alternating between persistent droughts and intense rainfall, as evidenced by the catastrophic floods of 2022 that devastated hundreds of thousands of hectares of agricultural land.[11]

Extreme weather events are on the rise. In Togo, violent winds, landslides, and prolonged droughts, sometimes lasting more than ten days, jeopardize critical planting periods. In Nigeria, an 80% increase in the probability of exceptional rains in 2022 has led to significant flooding, particularly in Lagos and Ogun states, destroying crops and exacerbating food crises.[12] These climate changes exacerbate regional inequalities: farmers with limited means to invest in adaptation solutions, such as irrigation or greenhouse farming, are most exposed to losing their crops and incomes.[13]

2.2.  Consequences on Agricultural Productivity

The impacts of climate change on agricultural productivity are significant. A 1°C increase in average temperatures leads to a 10 to 17% drop in yields for staple food crops such as maize and sorghum in the Sudano-Sahelian regions.[14] This decline is explained by several factors linked to climate change’s direct and indirect effects on agricultural production. On the one hand, heat and water stress constitute a significant constraint for crops. Rising temperatures lead to increased evapotranspiration, which reduces water availability in the soil. This situation limits plant growth and leads to a substantial drop in agricultural yields.[15] In addition, water deficits exacerbated by more frequent periods of drought further weaken agrarian systems, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas.

In Togo, maize yields decline by 15 to 20 percent for every 1°C rise.[16] Soil degradation, compounded by water erosion and nutrient loss, reduces land fertility, particularly in the northwest, where parasitic plants such as Striga cause losses of up to 100 percent of cereal crops. In Nigeria, millet and sorghum crops suffer losses of 10 to 30 percent, while recurring floods destroy agricultural infrastructure and disrupt crop cycles.[17]

Food insecurity is intensifying. In Togo, 8.17% of rural households are totally food insecure, which rises to 35% when climate hazards are considered.[18] Smallholder farmers, who depend on rain for their production, see their incomes drop by 20 to 40% during bad seasons, sometimes forcing them to sell their productive assets to survive.[19] This economic precariousness contributes to the perpetuation of the cycle of poverty, as witnessed by farmers in Bombouaka, who face “pockets of intermittent drought.”

Finally, the ecological resilience of ecosystems is compromised. The reduction in biodiversity, particularly of traditional varieties adapted to local conditions, limits farmers’ adaptive capacity. As IFPRI points out, the combination of rising temperatures and declining rainfall in Togo increases the vulnerability of rural populations, who already have limited access to agricultural inputs and technologies.

The impacts of climate change on family farming in Togo and Nigeria are multiple and interconnected. Rising temperatures, varying rainfall patterns, and increased extreme events weaken agricultural productivity, compromise food security, and reduce farmers’ incomes. This situation increases the socioeconomic vulnerability of rural households and encourages rural exodus, thus exacerbating demographic imbalances.

Faced with these challenges, the adoption of adaptation strategies is imperative. Some initiatives, such as climate insurance introduced in Togo in 2019 or investments in weather stations in Nigeria, show promising avenues. However, preserving biodiversity and strengthening agroecological practices remain essential levers for mitigating these impacts and ensuring the resilience of the agricultural sector.[20]

3.     Economic adaptation strategies and their implications

The economic adaptation of family farming to climate change relies on a combination of strategies to increase farms’ resilience to climate shocks. These strategies are part of a dynamic of sustainable transformation, combining crop diversification, access to financing, and the modernization of agricultural infrastructure. Analyzing these mechanisms provides a better understanding of the economic levers and constraints of adaptation, drawing on the work of researchers who have studied these issues in West Africa.

3.1.  Crop Diversification and Introduction of Resilient Varieties

Agricultural diversification is a key strategy for reducing the vulnerability of family farms to climate hazards. Farmers limit the risk of losses in adverse weather conditions by varying crop types.[21] In Togo and Nigeria, this diversification is achieved by introducing drought-tolerant crops, such as cowpea, fonio, and certain varieties of millet and sorghum, which require less water and are more resistant to high temperatures.[22]

The adoption of improved seeds is also a fundamental lever. Varieties genetically selected for their resilience to water and heat stress are promoted by institutions such as the Togolese Institute of Agronomic Research (ITRA) and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria.[23] However, the adoption of these varieties remains limited by economic and logistical constraints, notably the cost of certified seeds and their availability to smallholders.[24] Moreover, local dynamics also influence this adoption: farmers tend to favor traditional crops for cultural and market reasons, which raises the question of the compatibility between agronomic innovation and social acceptability.

Introducing improved varieties alone is not enough to ensure sustainable food security. Adaptation strategies must be integrated into broader agricultural systems, combining varietal innovations, natural resource management, and access to remunerative markets.[25]

3.2.  Access to Financing and Support Mechanisms

Lack of access to finance is one of the main obstacles to adaptation for family farmers. Investing in resilient agricultural techniques requires financial resources that many farmers lack. Therefore, the role of financial institutions in financing adaptation becomes crucial. Farmers with access to credit are more inclined to invest in sustainable agricultural practices, such as agroforestry and soil conservation.[26]

The Togolese and Nigerian governments and international institutions such as the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the Green Climate Fund (GCF) have implemented various support programs. For example, in Togo, IFAD-funded projects aim to facilitate access to credit for farmers, mainly through microfinance mechanisms adapted to local realities. Similarly, the Central Bank has initiated low-interest financing programs in Nigeria to support smallholder farmers facing climate challenges.[27]

However, the effectiveness of these schemes is often hampered by administrative burdens and the lack of guarantees required by financial institutions, making credit inaccessible to small producers.[28] Furthermore, financial instruments must be accompanied by capacity-building measures to ensure that allocated funds are used efficiently.[29] Thus, alternative solutions, such as climate-indexed agricultural insurance, could provide producers with financial security and encourage adopting resilient farming practices.

3.3.  Development of Agricultural Infrastructure and Technologies

Improving agricultural infrastructure is essential to economic adaptation, particularly regarding water management and modernizing production techniques. Irrigation plays a central role in stabilizing yields in the face of erratic rainfall, but its development remains limited in Togo and Nigeria. Localized irrigation, such as drip irrigation, can significantly increase crop productivity while optimizing the use of water resources.[30] However, the initial investment in these technologies remains a significant obstacle for many family farmers.

In this context, intermediate solutions are emerging, such as small dams and solar pumps, which are gradually being adopted through rural development projects.[31] In Nigeria, initiatives such as the “Fadama Project” have enabled the expansion of irrigated areas and the structuring of agricultural cooperatives to improve access to irrigation equipment.[32]

Furthermore, the digitalization of agriculture represents a significant opportunity for adaptation. Weather information and precision agriculture services allow farmers to optimize their decision-making and reduce losses related to climate hazards. Mobile technologies facilitate the dissemination of agronomic advice and access to markets, thus improving the economic resilience of small producers.[33] In Togo, platforms such as “mAgri” provide farmers with climate forecasts and crop recommendations, reducing uncertainties related to climate variability.

However, the transition to digital agriculture poses challenges in terms of access to technology and farmer training. Without adequate technical and institutional support, these innovations risk remaining limited to a minority of better-resourced producers, thus exacerbating inequalities within the agricultural sector.[34]

4.     Ecological Issues and Sustainable Agricultural Practices

4.1.  Promotion of Agroecology and Sustainable Agricultural Practices

Faced with the growing challenges posed by climate change, adopting sustainable agricultural practices is essential to ensure the resilience of family farms in Togo and Nigeria. Agroecology, which is based on the principles of interaction between agricultural ecosystems and biodiversity, constitutes a credible alternative to often destructive intensive farming models.

Agroforestry, combining food crops and tree plantations, effectively addresses land degradation while increasing agricultural productivity. This approach promotes soil fertility through the natural addition of organic matter and reduces erosion thanks to the trees’ deep root systems.[35] In Nigeria, initiatives such as integrating shea and African locust bean trees into farms have proven effective in soil conservation and diversification of income sources.[36]

In Togo, research has highlighted the positive impact of hedgerows and agroforestry plantations on soil moisture retention.[37] These systems mitigate the effects of drought by limiting evapotranspiration and stabilizing soil structure, a crucial aspect for smallholder farmers’ adaptation. Using biofertilizers derived from local organic matter provides an alternative to chemical inputs, thus reducing the negative environmental impacts of synthetic fertilizers. Enriched compost and crop residues promote soil regeneration by improving its structure and nutrient content.[38]

Furthermore, erosion control remains a priority in areas prone to desertification. Methods such as stone bunds and zaï techniques, popularized in the Sahel and adapted in some Togolese regions, improve water retention and restore the fertility of arid lands.[39] In Nigeria, community-based watershed management initiatives, such as those implemented in Katsina State, have shown notable effectiveness in stabilizing soils and protecting crops from water erosion.[40]

4.2.  Natural Resource Management and Local Adaptation

Effective adaptation of family farming to climate change requires the rational management of natural resources, particularly forests and water, which are essential for the sustainability of production systems.

Deforestation poses a significant threat to agricultural ecosystems, compromising soil fertility and exacerbating climate instability. In several regions of Nigeria and Togo, intensive logging for charcoal production and expanding arable land is leading to accelerated loss of vegetation cover.[41] Recent studies have shown that restoring degraded forests through reforestation and sustainable woodland management promotes carbon sequestration and protects hydrological cycles essential to agriculture.[42] In Togo, local reforestation initiatives, supported by organizations such as FAO and IFAD, encourage the adoption of agroforestry practices to restore ecological balance. Projects like participatory community forest management have reduced pressure on timber resources while integrating perennial crops into the agricultural landscape.[43]

In a context where water is becoming an increasingly scarce resource due to erratic rainfall, adopting water conservation techniques is essential. In West Africa, strategies such as rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation optimize the use of water resources.[44] Nigerian initiatives, such as adopting micro-dams and retention basins, have effectively secured water access during drought.[45] In Togo, integrating mulching techniques and intercropping helps maintain soil moisture and limit depletion.[46] Although locally adapted, these methods require institutional and financial support to be deployed on a large scale and ensure a lasting impact.

5.     Challenges and Opportunities for Effective Adaptation

Adapting family farming to climate change in Togo and Nigeria faces socioeconomic constraints that limit its effectiveness. Still, it also opens up interesting prospects for transitioning to more resilient and sustainable agricultural systems. This section examines the main obstacles hindering this adaptation and opportunities to improve the resilience of family farmers.

5.1.  Socioeconomic Challenges

One of the main obstacles to effective adaptation is farmers’ lack of access to information and training. In many rural areas, family farmers have limited knowledge of agroecological practices adapted to new climate conditions.[47] The lack of adequate extension services exacerbates this situation, preventing the dissemination of technical innovations such as agroforestry, sustainable soil management, and the optimization of irrigation systems.[48] Furthermore, the digital divide is a significant constraint, hindering access to climate forecasting platforms and real-time agricultural advice.[49]

At the same time, inadequately adapted public policies and climate governance hinder the implementation of effective adaptation initiatives. Although national adaptation strategies have been developed, their implementation often remains fragmented due to insufficient coordination between institutions.[50] Furthermore, adaptation financing remains insufficient: smallholder farmers have limited access to agricultural credit and climate financing mechanisms, preventing them from investing in resilient infrastructure or improved seeds.[51] Weak regulatory frameworks for natural resource management also exacerbate the degradation of agricultural ecosystems, threatening the sustainability of family farmers’ livelihoods.

5.2.  Opportunities and Prospects for Improvement

Despite these challenges, several levers can be used to strengthen the adaptation of family farming to climate change. First, strengthening farmers’ capacities and disseminating good practices are priorities. Implementing targeted training on soil conservation techniques, efficient use of water resources, and agroecology would enable farmers to better cope with climate hazards.[52] In addition, support programs integrating traditional knowledge and modern innovations would promote faster adoption of resilient practices.[53] Improving extension services and using digital technologies, such as climate forecasting applications and agricultural information platforms, could also improve farmers’ decision-making in the face of climate risks.[54]

Furthermore, regional cooperation and the integration of sustainable agricultural policies offer promising prospects. Harmonizing adaptation strategies at the subregional level would allow for the exchange of successful experiences and the pooling of resources for adaptation financing.[55] Initiatives such as ECOWAP (ECOWAS Agricultural Policy) could be key in integrating climate issues into regional agricultural policies. Developing partnerships between governments, research institutions, and the private sector would stimulate innovation and promote sustainable solutions adapted to local realities.[56]

Although adopting family farming in Togo and Nigeria faces numerous economic and institutional barriers, it also represents an opportunity for transformation toward a more resilient agricultural model. An integrated approach, combining capacity building, improved public policies, and regional cooperation, would help address these challenges and ensure greater food security in the face of climate change.

6.     Conclusion

Analyzing family farming adaptation strategies to climate change in Togo and Nigeria highlights significant economic and ecological challenges. The impacts of climate change are reflected in reduced agricultural yields, income instability, and increased pressure on natural resources. In this context, environmental economics offers a relevant analytical framework, integrating both biophysical constraints and socioeconomic imperatives of adaptation. Sustainable economic growth cannot be separated from the ecological limits of the biosphere. This principle applies directly to family farming, where soil depletion and biodiversity loss compromise the long-term viability of farms. [57]Moreover, the socio-ecological systems approach highlights the importance of local governance and institutions in fostering resilient and inclusive adaptation solutions.[58]

Several levers for action can be considered to strengthen farm resilience while preserving the environment. First, promoting agroecological practices adapted to local realities, such as agroforestry, integrated water management, and climate-resilient varieties, is crucial. These strategies improve short-term productivity, maintain soil fertility, and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.[59] Second, increased access to climate finance and weather-indexed agricultural insurance would encourage smallholder producers to invest in sustainable technologies, reducing their economic vulnerability.[60] Finally, public policies must integrate a participatory approach, involving farmers in developing and implementing adaptation programs.

Future research should better quantify adaptation strategies’ economic and ecological externalities. A rigorous assessment of the costs and benefits of agroecological practices, including indirect effects on biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles, would help guide policy choices and optimize the allocation of climate finance.[61] In addition, a comparative analysis between different regions of Togo and Nigeria, integrating methodologies from experimental economics and ecosystem modeling, would provide a more accurate framework for assessing adaptation trajectories. Finally, the role of economic incentives and carbon offset markets in the transition to more resilient agriculture deserves further investigation, particularly by examining payment mechanisms for ecosystem services.[62]

Thus, combining technical strategies, institutional reforms, and increased integration of ecological and economic principles makes reconciling the imperatives of agricultural production and ecosystem preservation possible. Adapting family farming to climate change should not be seen solely as a necessity for food security but also as an opportunity to reinvent more equitable and sustainable production models at the local and regional levels.

7.     Recommendations for Further Research

To better understand the complex dynamics of family farming adaptation to climate change, future research should focus on complementary areas that intersect ecological economics, agricultural sciences, and public policy. Below are key recommendations for researchers interested in this subject.

7.1.  Improve the quantification of the economic and ecological externalities of adaptation strategies

There is a pressing need for in-depth studies to rigorously assess the costs and benefits of agroecological practices, including their direct and indirect effects on biogeochemical cycles, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. Such analyses would provide a clearer understanding of the long-term impacts of these strategies and strengthen the empirical foundation for informing public policy and climate finance mechanisms. Special attention should be given to the economic valuation of ecological benefits, which are often overlooked in conventional profitability assessments.

7.2.  Deepen regional comparisons and differentiated adaptation pathways

It would be valuable to conduct comparative studies at the subnational level, considering each region’s agroecological, economic, and cultural specificities. A mixed-methods approach combining ecosystem modeling, field surveys, and experimental economics would help identify the most effective adaptation trajectories according to local contexts. This approach would also enhance stakeholders’ capacity to develop differentiated strategies tailored to the diversity of regional vulnerabilities.

7.3.  Explore the role of economic incentives and environmental markets in the agricultural transition

A promising research avenue involves analyzing mechanisms for remunerating ecosystem services, particularly through carbon markets and payment for ecosystem services (PES) schemes. Research should examine how these tools could encourage smallholders to adopt sustainable practices while securing their incomes. A better understanding of implementing such mechanisms in West African contexts could unlock new possibilities for localized climate finance.

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