1.     Introduction

This paper discusses conflict resolution from a religious perspective by analysing the doctrines of Hinduism, Islam, and Jainism. The discussion revolves around the examination of the shared principles of different faiths in promoting peaceful dispute resolution while at the same time focussing on the project “A Common Word”[1] and the Jain doctrine of Anekantavada. This paper will endeavour to illustrate how religious concepts facilitate conflict resolution by referencing religious literature and engaging in modern interfaith discussion. It examines how various faiths provide distinct but interrelated viewpoints on conflict resolution and mediation.

2.     Background of religious influence on dispute resolution owards an interdisciplinary approach to vaccine hesitancy

Religion has fundamentally influenced the development of conflict resolution processes across civilisations.^[2] Throughout history, religious traditions have established ethical frameworks that regulate social behaviour, including protocols for conflict resolution. Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, and other religions contain doctrines on justice, reconciliation, and non-violence, which have historically shaped legal and social dispute resolution methods.[3]

In Hinduism, the notion of Dharma functions as a fundamental basis for ethical decision-making, including conflict resolution.^[4] Ancient Hindu scriptures, such as the Manusmriti and the Arthashastra, include systematic methodologies for arbitration, stressing equity and obligation.^[5] While concentrating on overarching philosophical concepts, the Bhagavad Gita also tackles moral purity challenges in conflict scenarios.[6]

Islamic doctrine emphasises fairness (Adl) and reconciliation (Sulh) as fundamental principles of conflict resolution.^[7] The Quran and Hadiths provide extensive guidance on mediation, highlighting equity and the function of unbiased arbitrators.^[8] Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) codified these concepts, establishing the foundation for Sharia courts and alternative conflict resolution systems in Muslim cultures.[9]

Jainism, founded on non-violence (Ahimsa) and non-absolutism (Anekantavada), advocates for tolerance and diverse viewpoints in dispute resolution.^[10] The Jain methodology for conflict resolution aims to prevent damage by communication and consensus-building, a framework that corresponds with modern mediation techniques.[11]

In addition to distinct traditions, ecumenical initiatives like “A Common Word” highlight the capacity for religious discourse in conflict resolution.^[12] This project, spearheaded by Muslim academics, improves mutual respect and understanding across many religious groups, illustrating standard ethical norms underpinning peacebuilding.[13]

3.     Theological foundations of conflict resolution

3.1.  Hinduism and Conflict Resolution

Hinduism offers a theological foundation for conflict resolution through Dharma, which represents righteousness, duty, and law. As expounded in Hindu scriptures, Dharma establishes the ethical and moral framework guiding individual and societal conduct.^[14] The Bhagavad Gita, a Hindu text, provides insights into resolving ethical dilemmas by balancing duty with justice.^[15] It encourages its followers to act selflessly, avoiding personal gain while pursuing the right path in conflict situations.[16]

Ancient Hindu legal texts, such as the Manusmriti and the Arthashastra, offer structured approaches to dispute resolution.[17] The Manusmriti delineates different legal proceedings, including arbitration and negotiation, as preferred dispute resolution methods.[18] The Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya, provides a detailed account of statecraft and judicial practices, suggesting mediation and reconciliation in conflicts.[19]

Hinduism’s emphasis on non-violence (Ahimsa) also plays a crucial role in dispute resolution. Ahimsa, as highlighted in the Upanishads and later elaborated by Mahatma Gandhi, serves as a guiding principle for resolving conflicts peacefully.[20] Gandhi’s philosophy of Satyagraha (truth and nonviolent resistance) was rooted in Hindu ethics and applied to social and political disputes.[21]

Hindu rituals and community mechanisms serve as informal institutions for conflict resolution. Traditionally composed of village elders, the Panchayat system applies Hindu principles to mediate disputes and maintain social harmony.[22] These local governance structures ensure justice by prioritising consensus and communal welfare over adversarial legal battles.[23]

Therefore, the Hindu theological framework for dispute resolution encompasses a balance of duty, law, and morality. It provides a holistic approach integrating scriptural guidance, historical legal practices, and community-based mediation to foster justice and reconciliation. n this section, we consider a number of theoretical frameworks that will in many instances coincide with our interdisciplinary research.

3.2.  Islamic Principles of Conflict Resolution

Islam offers a thorough theological framework for dispute resolution that prioritises justice, reconciliation, and forgiveness. The Qur’an advocates for peaceful conflict settlement and the pursuit of justice.[24] Surah Al-Hujurat (49:9) encourages Muslims to intervene between disputing parties and maintain equity and neutrality.[25] The Qur’an lays down that conflicts be resolved with forbearance, as shown by the actions of the Prophet Muhammad.[26]

The Sunnah offers instructions on dispute resolution, highlighting negotiation, arbitration, and mediation.[27] The Prophet often served as an adjudicator in tribe conflicts, using ideas of equity and empathy.[28] His mediation in the controversy surrounding the Black Stone in Mecca illustrates his capacity to settle problems via imaginative and inclusive approaches.

Islamic law (Fiqh) formalises dispute resolution via processes like Sulh (amicable settlement) and Tahkim (arbitration).[29] Sulh is notably highlighted in Islamic jurisprudence as a favoured approach for conflict resolution before litigation. This notion corresponds with the Qur’anic injunction to pursue reconciliation and uphold harmony among people and communities.[30]

Forgiveness and reconciliation are fundamental principles in Islamic conflict resolution. The Qur’an advocates for forgiveness and the pursuit of peace, as seen in Surah Ash-Shura (42:40), which asserts that forgiving results in divine recompense. Historical instances, such as the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, underscore the Islamic inclination towards diplomacy and compromise rather than enduring confrontation.[31]

The Islamic methodology for dispute resolution incorporates divine directives, prophetic traditions, and legal frameworks to promote justice and peace. Islam provides a systematic and principled framework for conflict resolution via mediation, arbitration, and reconciliation.

3.3.  Jainism and Non-violence

Jainism offers a unique and profoundly philosophical method for dispute settlement based on Ahimsa (non-violence). Ahimsa is the core principle of Jain philosophy, including physical injury and verbal and mental actions, hence advocating for complete non-violence in conflict resolution.[32] Jain scriptures, like the Acharanga Sutra, emphasise the need for non-violence in personal and societal disputes.

Anekantavada, the philosophy of different views, is a fundamental Jain principle that aids dispute resolution. It fosters intellectual humility by recognising that reality is multifarious and that divergent ideas should be embraced rather than contested.[33] This method promotes discourse and reciprocal comprehension, reducing the probability of persistent disagreements.[34]

Jain monastic traditions have always emphasised mediation and reconciliation. Jain monks often mediate conflicts between individuals and groups, promoting calm discourse and compromise.[35] The Jain principle of Syadvada (conditioned assertion) emphasises that utterances must be contextualised rather than seen as absolute, fostering peaceful conversation.[36]

Jain ethical principles, particularly Aparigraha (non-possessiveness), impact conflict resolution by diminishing material attachments that may incite disagreements.[37] Jainism promotes detachment and contentment, providing a framework to reduce conflicts stemming from greed or consumerism via ethical self-discipline.[38]

In modern contexts, Jain ideas have influenced nonviolent movements and peacebuilding initiatives. Figures like Shrimad Rajchandra and Acharya Tulsi underscored the significance of Jain ethics in promoting unity and mediating conflicts. The amalgamation of Ahimsa, Anekantavada, and Syadvada offers a systematic but adaptable approach to conflict resolution that corresponds with ecumenical and worldwide peace endeavours.

4.     “A Common Word” and Interfaith Dialogue

4.1.  Historical Context of “A Common Word”

The “A Common Word” movement arose in reaction to escalating tensions between Islamic and Christian communities, especially after Pope Benedict XVI’s address in Regensburg in 2006. The effort was formally inaugurated in 2007 with an open letter from Muslim academics addressed to Christian leaders, highlighting common theological tenets of love for God and one’s neighbour.[39]

This project addressed misunderstandings and animosity by promoting discourse rooted in fundamental religious principles. The paper emphasises the Qur’anic and Biblical mandates for peace and cohabitation, using passages such as Surah Al-Imran (3:64) and Mark 12:29-31. “A Common Word” aimed to provide a foundation for mutual respect and cooperation by articulating the dialogue around common ethical concepts.[40]

4.2.  Core Messages and Principles

The A Common Word campaign is based on the mutual ethical tenets of Islam and Christianity, highlighting love for God and one’s neighbour as essential to interfaith concord. The paper, endorsed by 138 Muslim academics, argues that these principles constitute the essence of both faith traditions and provide a foundation for harmonious cohabitation and conflict resolution.[41]

The campaign underscores the fundamental need for interfaith collaboration using scripture passages from both faiths. Surah Al-Imran (3:64) in Islam advocates for unity among the People of the Book, encouraging cooperation based on common monotheistic principles. Christianity similarly underscores the primary commandments in Mark 12:29-31, which direct adherents to love God and their neighbours.[42]

A fundamental tenet of “A Common Word” is the repudiation of violence inspired by religion. The initiative unequivocally denounces extremism and advocates a revitalised dedication to compassion and justice. It posits that the Qur’an and the Bible emphasise peace as a divine imperative, promoting discourse above conflict.[43]

A primary theme of “A Common Word” is advancing respect and understanding across many religious traditions. The effort promotes religious conversation, urging members to acknowledge the validity of other viewpoints while reaffirming their own beliefs. This approach corresponds with the Islamic notion of ta’aruf (mutual knowledge) articulated in Surah Al-Hujurat (49:13), which advocates for cultural and religious variety as an aspect of divine design.[44]

The movement emphasises the significance of justice as a fundamental principle in interfaith partnerships. It advocates for fair treatment of religious minorities and safeguarding religious liberties to promote enduring peace and collaboration. These values correspond with Islamic and Christian equity and human dignity doctrines, emphasising that peacebuilding initiatives must be founded on moral integrity.[45]

“A Common Word” is a seminal literature for interfaith dialogue, encouraging Muslim and Christian communities to transcend past disputes and choose a future grounded on mutual ethical ideals. The themes of love, respect, justice, and peace persist in influencing modern dialogues on religious concord and conflict resolution (Marshall 2013, 178).[46]

4.3.  Comparative Perspectives from Hinduism, Islam and Jainism

The ideals articulated in “A Common Word” align with analogous themes of Hinduism, Islam, and Jainism. Hinduism, with its concept of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (the world as one family), advocates for global brotherhood and harmonious cohabitation, similar to the interfaith unity endorsed by “A Common Word”.[47] The Bhagavad Gita and other Hindu texts stress selfless service and non-violence as methods for conflict resolution.[48]

Islamic doctrines, as highlighted in “A Common Word”, align with Hinduism and Jainism in promoting nonviolent conflict resolution. The Quran advocates for believers to participate in discourse with knowledge and sound advice, a notion that corresponds with Hindu doctrines of Ahimsa and Jainism’s Anekantavada.[49]

The idea of Anekantavada in Jainism supports “A Common Word” by promoting a pluralistic perspective on reality. This idea, highlighting that reality may be seen from several legitimate perspectives, promotes amicable conversations and reciprocal respect, paralleling the appeal for interfaith comprehension in “A Common Word”.[50] The Jain ethical principle of Ahimsa (non-violence) corresponds with the repudiation of religiously driven violence articulated in A Common Word.

Hinduism, Islam, and Jainism all emphasise fairness as a fundamental value for conflict resolution. Hindu legal traditions prioritise Dharma as the foundation for equitable dispute settlement, akin to the Quran’s focus on justice (Adl) and fairness in interfaith interactions—likewise, Jainism’s Satya and Ahimsa function as fundamental ethical principles in mediation and conflict resolution.[51]

In conclusion, while “A Common Word” is an effort based on Islamic-Christian interaction, its fundamental tenets of love, peace, justice, and respect resonate significantly with Hindu and Jain traditions. The shared values provide a robust basis for interfaith collaboration and implementing religious doctrines in conflict resolution within various religious settings.[52]

5.     Anekantavada and Its Role in Conflict Resolution

Anekantavada posits that reality is intricate and multifarious, and no one perspective can establish the ultimate truth. The idea is fundamentally embedded in the Jain epistemological framework, emphasising intellectual humility and receptiveness to other viewpoints. Anekantavada cultivates a mentality that facilitates conflict resolution by promoting tolerance and mutual respect among opposing parties. Jain academics assert that this philosophy encourages considering diverse perspectives before establishing inflexible judgements, thereby reducing the probability of conflict escalation.[53] The notion of non-absolutism in Anekantavada corresponds with contemporary dispute resolution strategies that prioritise conversation and negotiation rather than confrontational methods.[54] In mediation and diplomatic discussions, Anekantavada provides a philosophical basis for integrative bargaining when opposing parties recognise the partial validity of each other’s viewpoints.[55] This non-dogmatic methodology allows parties to transcend binary thinking and investigate innovative conflict resolutions.[56] Scholars have identified similarities between Anekantavada and modern philosophies of constructive engagement, especially in the context of intercultural and interfaith discussions.[57] The historical use of Anekantavada in conflict resolution is evident among Jain emperors and academics who promoted non-violence and reconciliation instead of armed assault. Emperor Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance is often referenced as an example shaped by Jain philosophy, fostering cooperation via diverse administration.[58] In contemporary times, Mahatma Gandhi, profoundly inspired by Jain’s ideas, used Anekantavada in his satyagraha activities, prioritising understanding and reconciliation above force.[59] Anekantavada interacts with nonviolent communication (NVC), a concept established by Marshall Rosenberg that emphasises empathic listening and transforming hostile exchanges into productive conversations.[60] The Jain methodology for conflict resolution via Anekantavada corresponds with the tenets of Nonviolent Communication (NVC), making it an effective instrument in mediation and peacebuilding initiatives.[61]

The use of Anekantavada in international conflict resolution is seen in peace efforts that emphasise inclusive discussion. The concept supports initiatives in interreligious dialogue, where many theological viewpoints are integrated to promote mutual tolerance and understanding.[62] By recognising the legitimacy of many realities, Anekantavada alleviates ideological inflexibility, a significant barrier to settling ethno-religious disputes.

Anekantavada offers a philosophical and practical framework for conflict resolution by cultivating intellectual humility, facilitating discourse, and advocating nonviolent interaction. Its focus on various facts provides an alternative to adversarial dispute resolution approaches, making it especially pertinent in today’s polarised society.[63]

5.1.  The Philosophical Basis of Anekantavada

Anekantavada, or “non-one-sidedness,” originates from two Sanskrit terms: ‘anek’ (many) and ‘anta’ (end or viewpoint), indicating that reality has numerous facets. The idea is fundamentally rooted in Jain’s metaphysics, which asserts that reality is intricate and can only be partly comprehended by the constrained human mind.[64]

The notion is intricately associated with Syadvada, the doctrine of conditional predication, which posits that every claim about reality is valid only under certain circumstances. Jain philosophers assert that truth may be articulated by sevenfold predication (saptabhangi) via Syadvada, facilitating a nuanced comprehension of intricate matters.[65] This epistemological paradigm dissuades absolutism and advocates that various views may possess partial truths.[66]

The use of Anekantavada in conflict resolution is significant since it promotes a culture of acceptance and mutual respect among disputing parties. Acknowledging the legitimacy of diverse perspectives provides a basis for productive communication instead of confrontational disputes.[67]

Anekantavada corresponds with the principles of non-violence (Ahimsa), a fundamental Jain doctrine aimed at reducing damage in thought, speech, and action. Nonviolent communication techniques rooted in Anekantavada promote empathy and collaborative problem-solving instead of conflict.[68] This methodology has successfully addressed religious, political, and societal problems by prioritising common human values above inflexible ideological divides.

5.2.  Application in Contemporary Mediation Practices

Anekantavada has been used in interfaith discussions to resolve religious conflicts by fostering inclusion and mutual comprehension.[69] Historical examples, such as the discussions between Jain academics and Buddhist and Hindu thinkers, demonstrate how this idea promoted intellectual exchanges instead of violent conflicts. Modern applications in legal and diplomatic talks highlight its potential in peacebuilding and reconciliation initiatives.[70]

Anekantavada provides a philosophical basis for conflict resolution by promoting intellectual openness, tolerance, and the acceptance of other opinions. Its use of non-violence amplifies its effectiveness in resolving conflicts across several fields. Anekantavada, via the promotion of discourse and empathy, continues to be a significant concept for modern conflict resolution initiatives.[71]

5.3.  Synergy with Islamic and Hindu Approaches

In Islamic conflict resolution, ideas like Sulh (reconciliation), Ijma (consensus), and Adl (justice) resonate with the Jain philosophy of Anekantavada by promoting compromise and acknowledging diverse viewpoints in disagreements.[72] In Hinduism, conflict resolution is fundamentally rooted in the concepts of Dharma (righteousness), Nyaya (justice), and Ahimsa (non-violence), which correspond with Anekantavada’s advocacy for tolerance and mutual respect in dispute resolution.[73]

Islamic dispute resolution techniques, namely Sulh, emphasise peaceful settlements via mediation and discussion, akin to Anekantavada’s emphasis on recognising multiple perspectives before reaching conclusions.[74] The Qur’an (49:9-10) advocates for peaceful reconciliation and deems equitable arbitration crucial for resolving disputes. The Islamic principle of Ijtihad (independent thinking) aligns with Anekantavada’s idea that truth may be assessed from several perspectives, promoting equitable judgment.[75] These concepts are evident in Islamic legal traditions, which allow for juristic disagreements (Ikhtilaf) and encourage tolerance of many interpretations, supporting Anekantavada’s philosophical assertion that reality is multifarious.[76]

Hindu dispute resolution methods also prioritise justice, discourse, and non-violence, aligning them with Anekantavada. The Mahabharata (Shanti Parva, 12.109.10-12) emphasises reconciliation rather than conflict, indicating that comprehending many perspectives results in more just resolutions.[77] Ahimsa (non-violence), a fundamental Hindu and Jain ethics principle, advocates for conflict resolution via nonviolent methods, consistent with Anekantavada’s focus on eschewing absolutism in disputes.[78] The Hindu Nyaya traditions include samvada (conversation and discussion), which promotes settlement through intellectual discourse instead of coercion and mirrors Jain philosophy.[79]

The interplay of Anekantavada, Islamic, and Hindu conflict resolution strategies provides significant insights into contemporary dispute resolution and interfaith interaction. In a time of growing ideological polarisation, the Jain idea of many truths, with Islamic reconciliation methods and Hindu traditions of justice and non-violence, may promote more inclusive and durable peace processes.[80] By adopting many viewpoints and rejecting absolutist stances, these traditions provide a framework for constructive involvement in modern conflicts, illustrating their ongoing significance in the contemporary world.[81]

6.     Conclusion

The comparative examination of Hinduism, Islam, and Jainism in conflict resolution underscores the substantial influence of religious traditions in promoting peace and reconciliation. Hinduism’s focus on Dharma, justice, and non-violence offers a systematic but adaptable framework for conflict resolution, including scriptural authority, legal customs, and community mediation. Islamic concepts of Adl (justice) and Sulh (reconciliation) underscore the significance of mediation and arbitration as divine imperatives grounded in the Qur’an and the Sunnah. With its core principles of Ahimsa and Anekantavada, Jainism advocates a pluralistic and peaceful methodology for conflict resolution, emphasising the need for discussion and mutual comprehension in addressing problems.

Although these religious traditions provide significant insights into conflict resolution, they encounter difficulties in modern implementation. The dependence on religious ideas might sometimes result in exclusivist interpretations, constraining inclusiveness in multicultural cultures.[82] While mediation rooted in spiritual principles has shown efficacy in local and communal conflicts, its incorporation into contemporary legal systems continues to be a topic of persistent discussion[83]. Nonetheless, efforts such as “A Common Word” illustrate that interfaith discussion may reconcile differences across religious traditions, promoting cooperative strategies for peacebuilding. By leveraging the qualities of each tradition and merging them with modern dispute resolution methods, a more comprehensive and inclusive paradigm for conflict resolution may be realised.

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[1] A Common Word Between Us and You: 5-Year Anniversary Edition (Amman, Jordan: The Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought, 2012).

[2] John L. Esposito, What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 45.

[3] Gavin Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 122.

[4] Wendy Doniger, The Hindus: An Alternative History (New York: Penguin, 2009), 203.

[5] Patrick Olivelle, Manusmriti: The Laws of Manu (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 89.

[6] Diana L. Eck, Darshan: Seeing the Divine Image in India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 176.

[7] Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1980), 67.

[8] Mohammad Hashim Kamali, Shari’ah Law: An Introduction (Oxford: Oneworld, 2008), 211.

[9] Wael B. Hallaq, An Introduction to Islamic Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 144.

[10] Paul Dundas, The Jains (London: Routledge, 2002), 95.

[11] Piotr Balcerowicz, Early Jainism and Its Philosophical Context: Essays in Honor of Padmanabh S. Jaini (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2016), 132.

[12] Miroslav Volf, Allah: A Christian Response (New York: HarperOne, 2011), 56.

[13] Laurent Cleenwerck, Interreligious Dialogue and Philosophy (London: Routledge, 2011), 88.

[14] Doniger, The Hindus: An Alternative History, 85.

[15] Eck, Darshan: Seeing the Divine Image in India, 43.

[16] Barbara Stoler Miller, The Bhagavad Gita: Krishna’s Counsel in Time of War (New York: Bantam Books, 1986), 96.

[17] Olivelle, Manusmriti: The Laws of Manu, 67.

[18] Ludo Rocher, Studies in Hindu Law and Dharmaśāstra (New York: Anthem Press, 2012), 201.

[19] Roger Boesche, The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2002), 54.

[20] Bhikhu Parekh, Gandhi: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 79.

[21] Judith M. Brown, Gandhi and Civil Disobedience: The Mahatma in Indian Politics 1928-34 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 112.

[22] Dipesh Chakrabarty, Habits of the Heart: Ethical Life and Indian Traditions (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006), 188.

[23] K. Sivaramakrishnan, Modern Forests: Statemaking and Environmental Change in Colonial (Eastern India.Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009), 213.

[24] John L. Esposito, What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 45.

[25] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, The Study Quran: A New Translation and Commentary (New York: HarperOne, 2015), 201.

[26] Tariq Ramadan, In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 89.

[27] Kamali, Shari’ah Law: An Introduction, 67.

[28] Watt W.Montgomery, Islamic Political Thought (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988), 145.

[29] Hallaq, An Introduction to Islamic Law, 120.

[30] Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an, 76.

[31] Fred M. Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010), 133.

[32] Dundas, The Jains, 84.

[33] Nathmal Tatia, Studies in Jain Philosophy (Varanasi: P.V. Research Institute, 1994), 78.

[34] John E. Cort, Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 112.

[35] Nalini Balbir, Jainism and Early Buddhism: Essays in Honor of Padmanabh S, Jaini (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2015), 65.

[36] Williams Robert, Jaina Yoga: A Survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1991), 89.

[37] Dundas, The Jains, 132.

[38] Peter Flügel, Studies in Jaina History and Culture (London: Routledge, 2006), 98.

[39] Volf, Allah: A Christian Response, 132.

[40] David Marshall, Dialogue Theologies: Islam and Christianity in Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 201.

[41] Volf, Allah: A Christian Response, 45.

[42] Marshall, Dialogue Theologies: Islam and Christianity in Practice, 88.

[43] Marshall, Dialogue Theologies: Islam and Christianity in Practice, 115.

[44] Mohammed Abu-Nimer, Nonviolence and Peacebuilding in Islam (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2018), 136.

[45] Esposito, What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam, 2002, 154.

[46] Marshall, Dialogue Theologies: Islam and Christianity in Practice, 178.

[47] Arvind Sharma, Hinduism as a Missionary Religion (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2013), 56.

[48] Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli, The Bhagavad Gita (London: HarperCollins, 1993), 142.

[49] Esposito, What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam, 2002, 92.

[50] Dundas, The Jains, 88.

[51] Dundas, The Jains, 174.

[52] Marshall, Dialogue Theologies: Islam and Christianity in Practice, 202.

[53] Padmanabh Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998), 113.

[54] Tatia, Studies in Jain Philosophy, 42.

[55] Dundas, The Jains, 255.

[56] Christopher Key Chapple, Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), 142.

[57] Natubhai Shah, Jainism: The World of Conquerors, vol. 1 (Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 1998), 135.

[58] Dundas, The Jains, 278.

[59] Mohandas K. Gandhi, The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1965), 214.

[60] Marshall Rosenberg, Nonviolent Communication: A Language of Life (Encinitas, CA: PuddleDancer Press, 2003), 64.

[61] Chapple, Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions, 198.

[62] Dundas, The Jains, 299.

[63] Chapple, Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions, 212.

[64] Bimal Krishna Matilal, The Central Philosophy of Jainism (Ahmedabad: L.D. Institute of Indology, 1981), 55.

[65] Jonardon Ganeri, The Self: Naturalism, Consciousness, and the First-Person Stance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 134.

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